Industrial and OrganizationalPsychology
Research and Practice
Paul E. Spector
Department of Psychology
University of South Florida
1996
JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.
NewYork _ Chichester _ Brisbane _ Toronto _ Singapore
Part One
Introduction 1
Chapter 1 Introduction 3
Chapter 2 Research Methods in I/O Psychology 20
Part Two
Assessment of Jobs, Performance, and People 49
Chapter 3 Job Analysis 51
Chapter 4 Performance Appraisal 76
Chapter 5 Assessment Methods for Selection and Placement 103
Part Three
Selecting and Training Employees 131
Chapter 6 Selecting Employees 133
Chapter 7 Training 164
Part Four
The Individual and the Organization 189
Chapter 8 Theories of Employee Motivation 191
Chapter 9 Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment 213
Chapter 10 Productive and Counterproductive Employee
Behavior 243
Chapter 11 Employee Health and Safety 270
Part Five
The Social Context of Work 299
Chapter 12 Work Groups and Work Teams 301
Chapter 13 Leadership and Power in Organizations 324
Chapter 14 Organizational Development and Theory 351
References 373
Glossary 393
Part One
Introduction
Chapter 1 Introduction 3
What is I/O Psychology? 5
Activities and Settings of I/O Psychologists 6
History of the Field of I/O Psychology 8
I/O Psychology Around the World 11
What It Takes to Be an I/O Psychologist 12
I/O Psychology as a Profession 16
I/O Psychology as a Science 16
Ethics of the I/O Field 18
Chapter Summary 19
Chapter 2 Research Methods in I/O Psychology 20
Research Questions 22
Important Research Design Concepts 23
Variables 23
Research Setting 24
Generalizability 24
Control 25
Random Assignment and Random Selection 26
Confounding 26
Research Designs 27
The Experiment 27
Survey Designs 29
Observational Designs 30
Measurement 31
Classical Measurement Theory 32
Reliability 33
Validity 35
Statistics 36
Descriptive Statistics 36
Measures of Central Tendency and Dispersion 37
Correlation 38
Regression 41
Inferential Statistics 42
Meta-Analysis 45
Ethics of Research 46
Chapter Summary 47
Part Two
Assessment of Jobs, Performance, and People 49
Chapter 3 Job Analysis 51
What Is Job Analysis? 52
The Job-Oriented Approach 52
The Person-Oriented Approach 54
Purposes of Job Analysis 55
Career Development 55
Legal Issues 56
Performance Appraisal 57
Selection 57
Training 58
Sources of Job Analysis Information 58
Who Provides the Information?
58How Do People Provide Job Analysis Information?
59Perform Job 59
Observe 59
Interview 59
Questionnaires 60
Multiple Methods
61Methods of Job Analysis 61
Job Components Inventory 61
Functional Job Analysis 62
Position Analysis Questionnaire 64
Task Inventories 65
Choosing a Job Analysis Method
67Reliability and Validity of Job Analysis Information 68
Reliability 68
Validity 69
Job Evaluation 70
Comparable Worth 71
Future Issues and Challenges 72
Chapter Summary 73
I/O Psychology in Practice 74
Chapter 4 Performance Appraisal 76
Why Do We Appraise Employees? 77
Administrative Decisions 77
Employee Development and Feedback 78
Criteria for Research 78
Performance Criteria 78
Characteristics of Criteria 79
Actual Versus Theoretical Criteria 79
Contamination, Deficiency, and Relevance 79
Level of Specificity 82
Criterion Complexity 82
Dynamic Criteria 83
Methods for Assessing Job Performance 84
Objective Measures of Job Performance 84
Subjective Measures of Job Performance 86
Graphic Rating Forms 87
Behavior-Focused Rating Forms 87
Development of Behavior-Focused Forms 90
Cognitive Processes Underlying Ratings 91
Models of the Rating Process 91
Content of Subordinate Effectiveness 92
Who Should Rate Performance? 93
Rater Bias and Error 93
Halo Errors 94
Distributional Errors 95
Control of Rater Bias and Error 95
Error-Resistant Forms to Assess Performance 96
Rater Training to Reduce Errors 96
Factors That Influence Job Performance Ratings 98
Legal Issues in Performance Appraisal 99
Future Issues and Challenges 100
Chapter Summary 100
I/O Psychology in Practice 101
Chapter 5 Assessment Methods for Selection and Placement 103
Job-Related Characteristics 105
Psychological Tests 106
Characteristics of Tests 106
Group Versus Individual Administered Tests 107
Objective Versus Open-Ended Tests 107
Paper-and-Pencil Versus Performance Tests 108
Power Versus Speed Tests 108
Ability Tests 108
Cognitive Ability Tests 109
Psychomotor Ability Tests 110
Knowledge and Skill Test 112
Personality Tests 112
Integrity Tests 115
Vocational Interest Tests 116
Biographical Information 116
Interviews 119
Work Samples 122
Assessment Centers 123
Use of Computers in Assessment 127
Computer Administration of Psychological Tests 127
Tailored Testing 128
Future Issues and Challenges 128
Chapter Summary 129
I/O Psychology in Practice 130
Part Three
Selecting and Training Employees 131
Chapter 6 Selecting Employees 133
The Planning of Human Resource Needs 134
Recruiting Applicants 136
Selecting Employees 138
How Do We Select Employees? 139
Conducting a Validation Study 140
Step 1: Conduct a Job Analysis 141
Step 2: Specify Job Performance Criteria 141
Step 3: Choose Predictors 141
Step 4: Validate the Predictors 142
Step 5: Cross-Validate 143
Validity Generalization 143
How Predictor Information is Used for Selection 144
Multiple Hurdles 144
Regression Approach 144
Alternatives to Conducting Validation Studies 147
Getting Applicants to Accept and Keep Job Offers 148
The Utility of Scientific Selection 150
How Valid Selection Devices Work 151
Baserate 151
Selection Ratio 151
Validity 152
How Valid Predictors Increase Success Rates 152
Computing the Utility of Scientific Selection 153
Legal Issues 155
Legal Selection in the United States 155
Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection 157
Essential Functions and Reasonable Accommodation 159
Affirmative Action 159
Legal Selection Outside the United States 160
Future Issues and Challenges 161
Chapter Summary 161
I/O Psychology in Practice 163
Chapter 7 Training 164
Needs Assessment 165
Setting Objectives 167
Training Design 167
Trainee Characteristics 168
Design Factors That Affect Transfer of Training 169
Feedback 170
General Principles 170
Identical Elements 170
Overlearning 171
Sequencing of Training Sessions 172
Work Environment 173
Training Methods 174
Audiovisual Instruction 174
Autoinstruction 174
Conference 174
Lecture 175
Modeling 175
On-the-Job Training 176
Role Playing 176
Simulations 176
Delivery of a Training Program 177
Evaluation 177
Set Criteria 178
Choose Design 179
Pretest-Posttest 181
Control Group 181
Choosing Measures of the Criteria 182
Collecting Data 182
Data Analysis and Interpretation 183
Future Issues and Challenges 184
Chapter Summary 185
I/O Psychology in Practice 186
Part Four
The Individual and the Organization 189
Chapter 8 Theories of Employee Motivation 191
What Is Motivation? 192
Work Motivation Theories 193
Need Theories 194
Need Hierarchy Theory 194
ERG Theory 195
Two-Factor Theory 197
Reinforcement Theory 198
Expectancy Theory 200
Self-Efficacy Theory 202
Equity Theory 204
Goal-Setting Theory 208
Future Issues and Challenges 209
Chapter Summary 210
I/O Psychology in Practice 212
Chapter 9 Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment 213
The Nature of Job Satisfaction 214
How People Feel About Their Jobs 215
The Assessment of Job Satisfaction 217
Job Descriptive Index (JDI) 217
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) 219
Job in General Scale (JIG) 219
Is Global Satisfaction the Sum of Facets? 220
Antecedents of Job Satisfaction 220
Environmental Antecedents of Job Satisfaction 221
Job Characteristics 221
Role Variables 223
Work-Family Conflict 224
Pay 225
Personal Antecedents of Job Satisfaction 226
Personality 226
Gender 229
Age 229
Cultural and Ethnic Differences 230
Person-Job Fit 231
Potential Effects of Job Satisfaction 232
Job Satisfaction and Job Performance 232
Job Satisfaction and Turnover 234
Job Satisfaction and Absence 234
Health and Well-Being 234
Job and Life Satisfaction 235
Organizational Commitment 236
Assessment of Organizational Commitment 237
Organizational Commitment and Other Variables 238
Future Issues and Challenges 240
Chapter Summary 240
I/O Psychology in Practice 241
Chapter 10 Productive and Counterproductive Employee Behavior 243
Productive Behavior: Job Performance 244
Ability and Performance 245
Motivation and Performance 245
Personal Characteristics and Performance 246
The "Big Five’’ and Performance 246
Locus of Control and Performance 247
Age and Performance 247
Environmental Conditions and Job Performance 249
Job Characteristics and Performance 249
Incentive Systems and Performance 251
Design of Technology 251
Displays and Controls 252
Computer-Human Interaction 254
Organizational Constraints 255
Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) 257
Counterproductive Behavior: Withdrawal 259
Absence 259
Turnover 261
Counterproductive Behavior: Aggression, Sabotage, and Theft 264
Labor Unrest and Strikes 266
Future Issues and Challenges 266
Chapter Summary 267
I/O Psychology in Practice 268
Chapter 11 Employee Health and Safety 270
Physical Conditions Affecting Health and Safety 272
Infectious Disease 273
Loud Noise 273
Physical Assaults 274
Repetitive Actions 275
Temperature Extremes 276
Toxic Substances 277
Work Schedules 277
Night Shifts 278
Long Shifts 279
Flexible Work Schedules 280
Job Stress 282
The Job Stress Process 283
Job Stressors 285
Role Ambiguity and Role Conflict 285
Workload 285
Control 286
Machine Pacing 288
The Demand/Control Model 289
Accidents 290
Burnout 293
Future Issues and Challenges 294
Chapter Summary 295
I/O Psychology in Practice 296
Part Five
The Social Context of Work
Chapter 12 Work Groups and Work Teams 301
Work Groups Versus Work Teams 302
Important Group Concepts 303
Roles 303
Norms 304
Group Cohesiveness 305
Process Loss 306
Group Performance 307
Performance in the Presence of Others 307
Group Versus Individual Performance on Additive Tasks 308
Brainstorming 310
Group Decision Making 311
Group Polarization 311
Groupthink 313
Interventions with Workgroups in Organizations 315
Autonomous Work Groups 315
Quality Circles 317
Team Building 319
Future Issues and Challenges 320
Chapter Summary 321
I/O Psychology in Practice 322
Chapter 13 Leadership and Power in Organizations 324
What Is Leadership? 325
Sources of Influence and Power 325
French and Raven’s (1959) Bases of Power 325
Yukl’s (1989) Sources of Political Power 327
Abuse of Supervisory Power 328
Approaches to the Understanding of Leadership 330
The Trait Approach 330
The Leader Behavior Approach 331
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory 335
Path-Goal Theory 337
Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory 340
Charistmatic and Transformational Leadership Theories 341
Vroom-Yetton Model 343
Women in Leadership Positions 345
Gender and Leadership Style 347
Future Issues and Challenges 348
Chapter Summary 348
I/O Psychology in Practice 349
Chapter 14 Organizational Development and Theory 351
Organizational Development 352
Management by Objectives 353
Survey Feedback 355
Team Building 356
T-Group 356
Effectiveness of OD 357
Organizational Theories 358
Bureaucracy 359
Division of Labor 359
Delegation of Authority 360
Span of Control 361
Line Versus Staff 361
Theory X/Theory Y 361
Open System Theory 363
Sociotechnical Systems Theory 365
Comparison of the Theories 368
Future Issues and Challenges 370
Chapter Summary 371
I/O Psychology in Practice 371
References 373
Glossary 393
Name Index 405
Subject Index 413
Photo Credits 419